Wong, K-C. Fullan (2001) has suggested that recognizing the need for, and understanding the processes involved in, cultural change are essential tools of leadership development, for it is in establishing a culture of change in school that successful school development can occur. P. W. Crossing the great divides: problems of cultural diffusion for leadership in education. Everyone expects superiors to enjoy privileges, and status symbols are very important. British Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 363386. The dynamic culture of Educational Management & Administration, 26(1), 720. Sarason, S. Daily challenges for school leaders.I In Heck, R. However culture is often defined in broad general terms as, for example, the way we do things around here (Deal & Kennedy, 1982), obscuring complex and contested conceptualizations. (Eds. The study identifies how cultural literacy amongst the principals of the schools is a key element of the positive achievements they report. Stream sports and activities from La Habra High School in La Habra, CA, both live and on demand. It enriches the theory related to school culture and the research findings that have been identified in the Western settings. The first relates to the ways the day-to-day operations of the school interact with the outside world. In a strict sense we might argue that the culture of every educational institution is unique, derived from the context in which the school operates and the values of those who have led or been part of the organization over time. In this set article, Professor Louise Stoll explores the relationship between school culture and school improvement. Matching culture to preparation and development engages with what is perceived to be universal, what appears to be distinctive to the region or nation or group of people, and what is unique to the individual. Here we shall consider three of these perspectives which we believe provide diverse insights reflections on the tangible components of culture and a number of models of those components in action; consideration of the organizational scales at which culture is important in educational contexts; and a systems view of culture which enables the areas of potential management influence of culture in schools to be identified. (2005). We have looked at three theoretical aspects of culture here. While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. Stier insists that the latter cannot be achieved by content competencies alone. , Murphy M. Mentoring is therefore flavored by ease and acceptance of the views of seniors but sensitivity to negative feedback. There exists a considerable literature on culture, which provides a range of conceptualizations. Preparation of aspiring principals in Singapore: a partnership model. Similarly, Louque (2002) challenges the appropriateness of the culture embedded in the selection and development of educational leaders to Hispanic and African American Women. Essentially it makes a questionable assumption. The project established 21 common perceived effective leadership attributes and behaviors within the 57 participating nations, providing evidence of widespread assumptions about leadership. Preparing leaders involves considering the nature and impact of culture on the crafting of their development (for example, the curriculum or mode of delivery). (2007). (forthcoming). The Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 163187. Iles, P. Inevitably therefore, design of the curriculum and its delivery will involve judgments not only about the relevant local culture and the degree of diversity, but also how far global or international cultural assumptions may be relevant. Consequently, a tendency to stereotype or discount alternative cultures must be halted by conscious, persistent effort (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). In the context of education this is seen through the promotion of policies and practices around the globe that have been initially developed in the west, based often on western approaches to educational management and the key concept of economic rationalism. Identity based and reputational leadership: an American Indian approach to leadership. Hofstede (2003) has argued strongly that there are measurable differences between the cultures of nations. , School administration in China: a look at the principals role. Develops two "ideal culture" typologies (traditional and collegial) and discusses each for its heuristic, conceptual, methodological, and explanatory potential in school effectiveness and school . The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. ABSTRACT In 1986, the Halton Board of Education in Ontario, Canada initiated an Effective Schools Project. Beyond the school, though, lies a range of contextual cultures extending from the community within which the school lies to regional, national and international cultural contexts. Head teachers in rural China: aspects of ambition. Gupta Hodgkinson (2001) argues that culture is always determining, subliminally and subconsciously, our value orientation and judgments. In Saudi Arabia a command system is accepted by culture and tradition and schools have, in any case, little power to take decisions. (1996). Understanding Schools as Organisations Analysis of culture embedded in preparation and development programs will involve discriminating between what is rhetorical and what is evidenced. Buckingham: Open University Press. Firstly, it examines key theoretical models and perspectives on culture. 5167). Davis Sports. (1998). Leading and Managing Education: International Dimensions. For the purposes of this chapter, these two snapshots highlight issues that result from consideration of culture, such as who are the primary leaders and how might the leadership theory used in their development be shaped in response to differing ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions? R. Bush, T. The first approach led to selection of 25 most frequently found publications on the school as learning organisation and/or learning school. At first sight these components of culture may be thought to be significantly outside the control of schools themselves. While these are different aims, they both involve intercultural fluency. J. Archer, M. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Every school, for example, has a specific geographical and social location which will strongly shape its cultural context the inner city school serving a diverse multi-ethnic community will inherit a diversity of cultures that may be quite different to those of the suburban middle class school. Journal of Educational Administration, 334(5), 1231. (2001). The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. His ideas were widely influential. Story Consequently, although there is relatively little empirical data on which to draw, the issue of fit between culture and the conception, development and enactment of leadership has become a key concern. Walker, A. Kennedy, A. & Walnut Elementary 625 N. Walnut St. La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2369. Although researchers are just beginning to document the effectiveness of the PLC culture, early indications show that it has a significant positive effect on student learning (Lee & Smith, 1996; Louis & Marks, 1998; Stoll et al., 2006; Wiley, 2001). International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 401414. Moller, J. Each of the cultures influences and is influenced by each of the others. Archer (1996, p. 1) contends that the notion of culture remains inordinately vague to the extent that poverty of conceptualization leads to culture being grasped rather than analysed. Powell, Farrar and Cohen (1985) used research from fifteen high schools to depict a culture of easy and uncritical acceptance of underachievement. . Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), Speci cally, many scientists believe (Henting, 1997; Bruner, 2000; Stoll & Fink, 2000; Faulstich, 1999) that high-quality and successful changes in education can be achieved by introducing a culture of learning which espouses the holism and integrity of human beings. One of the best known is that applied to schools by Handy and Aitken (1986), which draws on observations across diverse organizations. Accessed online 16.2.07. Elmes (1986). The radical modernization of school and education system leadership in the United Arab Emirates: towards indigenized and educative leadership. While the analytical models described are helpful in conceptualizing the nature of culture, there are a number of key issues for leaders to recognize in reflecting on their own organizations. This paper's . UCEA. A. As in the acquisition of any language, fluency can only be achieved by practice and not just by theory (Taras & Rowney, 2007). Changing the culture of a school or of a leadership development program is therefore not a finite endeavor. Nevertheless, school leadership that supports, stimulates, and facilitates teacher learning, has been found to be a key condition for collaborative teacher learning (Stoll & Kools, 2017). We need to work in organisations, collectively developing an understanding of where they are going and what is important. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 7(2),127146. & (Hoppe, 2004, p. 333), a set of shared values and preferred actions among members of a society that largely determines among other things, the boundaries within which leader development is possible. (Eds. Cultural differences can be observed at a range of organizational scales. (1997). Much leadership theory reflects Anglophone and particularly US culture which Hoppe (2004, p. 335) suggests is consistently described as being individualistic, egalitarian, performance derived, comfortable with change, and action-and-data-oriented. Panel 4 A Typology of School Cultures. Bridges, E. Aitken, R. Many of our schools are good schools - if this were 1965. The government of Thailand sought to introduce the western concept of school-based management, but found this problematic in the context of an existing societal culture, typical amongst the staff of Thai schools, in which deference to senior management and leadership made the introduction of collaborative and distributed approaches to leadership very difficult. Lopez, G. R. Day Cultural complexity offers only multiple complications in assessing fit, not safe generalized conclusions. Each of these contexts has a culture that expresses itself conceptually, verbally, behaviorally and visually, and which is a product of the complex interaction of communities, socio-economic contexts and contrasts, ethnic and faith-based values and beliefs, and the history of that community as a whole and of the individuals within it. Hofstede, G. (2006). (2002). (1971). This book assists people inside and outside schools to . The culture of a school is one of its critical organizational characteristics. (2007). ISBN: 9781135277017. Research concerning leadership in multinational corporations defines three components of cultural fluency, cognitive complexity, emotional energy and psychological maturity (Iles & Kaur Hayers, 1997, p. 105). However, such a perspective ignores the ability of schools to select many of the cultural inputs. House, R. J. A person in charge is not required. Adler, N. & Commission on Educational Issues. Images of Organization, Powell, A. G. 420421). Corporate rituals: The rites and fituals of corporate life. Clearly in these two instances, Western derived theories of autonomy, planning and change management are all thrown into question. School principals in transition. M. 206207), There are no essential, innate and immutable characteristics of race, age, gender, disability or other demographic categories. & Begley, P. Conference of the Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration and Management, Collard, J. Javidan Education Leadership Review, 3(2), 2831. A welfarist culture, alternatively, emphasizes the individual needs of pupils. (1997). London: McGraw-Hill. Introducing human rights education in Confucian society of Taiwan: its implications for ethical leadership in education. DiTomaso, N. A new typology of school-level values is reported in three cultural contexts. Cross-cultural understandings of leadership: themes from Native American interviews. Its view of the nature of truth and reality how does it define what is true and what is not and how is truth defined in the context of the social or natural world? , Journal of School Leadership, Coleman, M. Bajunid (1996, p. 52) argued over a decade ago that in Malaysia there is an urgent need to inspire, motivate and work with relevant and meaningful concepts that the locals are at home and familiar with and to free educational leadership and management from the intellectual domination of Greco-Roman, Christian, Western intellectual traditions (1996, p. 63). P. The capacity of any individual or group to engineer culture is questionable (Adler, 1997; Morgan, 1986). There are no essential, innate and immutable characteristics of race, age, gender, disability or other demographic categories. , (2001). Categorization of groups which might be assumed to hold a culture in common is therefore problematic. It is also a response to the greater sensitivity brought about by the increasing diversity within many societies and the insistence that a perspective based on a single dominant culture risks sustaining a hegemonic, ineffective and excluding approach. Cincinnati: South Western. Cultures Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). In Organisational Culture and Leadership. (Throughout, the term development is used to indicate both pre-appointment preparation and the post-appointment on-going development of leaders.) As a second exemplar, in China the millennia long influence of Confucianism has led to a compliance culture, the impact of this cultural norm being a tendency to see change as an event rather than a process (Hallinger, 2001, p. 67). The chapter considers five main themes. Sarason (1971, 1996), writing of US schools, was one of the earliest to insist that improving schools was primarily a question of changing culture. School values were assessed by aggregating the scores of 862 students, (ages 15-19) in 32 Jewish and Arab Israeli schools (Study 1), and 1,541 students (ages 11-21) from 8 European schools and 163 teachers from 6 of these schools (Study 2), using Schwartz's Portrait Values Questionnaire. These are the cultural, verbal, visual and behavioral components of the school in action through which a wide range of cultural messages and aims will be delivered. Despite some advances since that time, understanding of culture and its relationship to leadership and its development remains empirically underdeveloped. The third element of the system is the cultural output of the school. Similarly, Bajunid (1996, p. 56) argues that the richness of Islamic teaching is absent from concepts of leadership. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Cardno, C. Find Washington Middle School test scores, student-teacher ratio, parent reviews and teacher stats. Sapre, P. Professing educational leadership: conceptions of power. (Eds. Brunner Kaur Hayers, P. Subordinates expect superiors to act autocratically. The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace; National Association of Secondary School Principals (U.S.); National Association of Independent Schools. Subordinates expect superiors to act autocratically. (2000) Leadership and Culture in Chinese Education. L. Bajunid, I. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 1(2), 95117. Such decisions will be founded on a concept of leadership that embraces far more than a capacity to competently manage the technical aspects of instruction. However, the findings which result from research in one location may lead to indiscriminate transfer of assumptions, such as the primary location of leadership in the principal. This paper's focus is school culture as 10. Processes and structures designed for a time that has passed are no longer appropriate in a rapidly changing society. The product will be a mosaic of sub-cultures, which may reinforce the cultural objectives of the whole school or, in some cases, appear as counter cultures that challenge the organizational hegemony. For example, the East or the West continue to be used as descriptive terms for cultural groups in the context of considering leadership. By continuing to use the site None is universally applicable or comprehensive, but all can serve to support an educational leaders reflection on the culture of a specific school. . What we mean by the term culture is both argued to be generally understood (Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming) and suggested not to be understood, misunderstood or so variously understood as to be verging on meaningless. Ranade, M. This may be interpreted in several ways ranging from the operational to the political. Educational leadership in East Asia: implications of education in global society. Wisdom gained, wisdom given: instituting PBL in a Chinese culture. Gronn, P. In China the relatively low contact hours enjoyed by teachers combined with a culture of comfort with peer critique has resulted in teacher groups working together for a considerable proportion of their time to achieve change (Bush & Qiang, 2000), while principals spend much of their time on operational administration (Washington, 1991). , & This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. And, of course, the selection of principals by governors, education boards or regional/national education authorities is a key mechanism through which the cultural inputs to a school will be strongly controlled. Introduction. Washington, K. (2003). (2007). | Promotions Two typologies are developed. From the approach adopted for teaching and learning, to the cultural values espoused in the pastoral and ethical functions of the school, to the relative value ascribed to possible destinations for pupils beyond school, the fabric of school life will be imbued by these cultural processes. (2002). Education. Walker, A. Exploring the cultural context of school improvement in Thailand. , Hanges Cultural globalization is the international transfer of values and beliefs, and while strictly it is multi-directional it is typically perceived as dominated by the spread of western, particularly American, values and symbols across the globe. , (1991). , New York: Teachers College Press. Bennett (forthcoming) point up the greater sensitivity within some cultures where responsibility for success is group owned and/ or where maintaining face is a high priority. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. Training and educating principals for such cultural literacy is the focus of later sections in this chapter. Duke, D. L. An international perspective on leadership preparation. Kantamara, P. Prosser, 1998). E. This may be due in part to the fact that understanding culture and its connection to leadership in education is a poorly researched field. . Good schools of this were 1965 the context of change a story of change - the Halton effective school project school effectiveness can inform school improvement the possibilities and challenges of school improvement school . Mabey (2005). Two typologies are developed. & The adoption of similar sets of competences, for example, reflects to some degree airbrushing out the influence of local culture (Davis, 2001; Macpherson, Kachelhoffer & El Nemr, 2007). Does it perceive itself as dominant, submissive, harmonizing or searching out a niche within its operational environment? Dorfman and House (2004) suggest three competing propositions: that cultural congruence in development and leadership is more effective; that cultural difference can be stimulating and bring about positive change; that leadership is universal activity. The key issue, of course, arising from globalization is that educational leaders will be faced increasingly with challenges to manage cultural change within their institution. In the period since the 1970s many commentators have created sometimes a single description of school culture, and sometimes typologies providing alternate descriptions. Hwang, K. K. Who. Salaman However, boundaries are permeable. Bush Wong, K. Their description of each provides significant detail of the culture of the type. Macro Relations: Culture and Globalization, Culture and Leadership Global Perspectives, Preparing Leadership for Cultural Fluency, Culture and Leadership Issues and Future Research, International Handbook on the Preparation and Development of School Leaders, Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming, House, Paul, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman & Mansour 2004, http://www.thunderbird.edu/wwwfiles/ms/globe/Links/process.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Tippeconic.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Walker.pdf, conceptually, through the ideas that are valued and promoted, verbally, through the language, terminology and discourses in use, behaviorally, through the activities, social interactions and rituals that occur, visually, through the designs and styles adopted by the organization in its physical and material components. Just as there is an interplay between culture and modes of delivery, assessment may also be rendered more or less effective by the degree of cultural fit. Bryant (1998) suggests that as a consequence school leadership as conceived in the US is unlikely to be appropriate to Native American educational leaders whose culture and consequent conception of leadership is very different. Diversity and the demands of leadership. After graduation, 76% of students from this school go on to attend a 4-year college. El Nemr, M. School Culture Edited by: Jon Prosser Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd Publication year: 1999 Online pub date: June 19, 2012 Discipline: Education Subject: Social/Philosophical Foundations, School Culture & Climate, Sociology of Education (general) DOI: https:// doi. & , & (2001). International Studies in Educational Administration. Hallinger, P. However, Cardno (2007) argues that the dilemma created by the need to give negative feedback and to save face, for example in appraisal, often emphasized as a cultural context in Chinese societies, is in fact universal. Analysis of the content of programs might suggest that such commitment is largely camouflage for neglect of such values (Lopez, 2003; Rusch, 2004). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. P. (1998). London: Sage. Lumby with Coleman (2007) identifies the emotional dimensions of rage, confusion, and anxiety in engaging with alternate cultures (DiTomaso & Hooijberg, 1996; Osler, 2004; Prasad & Mills, 1997; Rusch, 2004). School culture can have an positive. Such a perspective suggests that the dominant culture, were it to be discerned with any certainty, would be embedded, unexamined and therefore unchallenged, in preparation and development programs. While there may be commonalities within a whole school, in practice each of these levels will differ in the detail of its culture. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. London: Paul Chapman. Mller & (2006). & , In relation to leader preparation and development culture has been framed largely as an issue of diffusion, particularly of Western values and practice applied to the development of leaders in all parts of the globe (Leithwood & Duke, 1998). School culture, therefore, is most clearly "seen" in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus. None is universally applicable nor comprehensive in its utility, yet they provide a range of perspectives to assist in clarifying this miasmic concept. Washington Middle School 716 E. La Habra Boulevard La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2374. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 2029. For example, Bryant (1998), researching the leadership culture of Native Americans in the United States, suggests a number of cultural assumptions embedded in American leadership: The result is a simultaneous requirement for a task and people orientation. (Eds. More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. Bhindi 206207). Nick Foskett, Print publication date: July 2008 School culture, therefore, is most clearly seen in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems, and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus (Stoll & Fink, 1998) or simply the distinctive identity of . In others, variation is considerable and the primary drive to develop teaching and learning, attainment and achievement may be located elsewhere. Cross-cultural issues in development of leaders. & The former has received very little and the latter a good deal more attention (Gronn, 2001; Heck, 1996). The school leader is therefore at the fulcrum point, subject to exogenous effects of culture, refracted in part through his or her leadership development and personal cultural locus, and in turn engaging with endogenous culture in the school and its community. Effective. All leadership development has embedded cultural values. The focus on culture at the macro or societal level is matched by concern with the micro or organizational level, the school level. (2007). Kachelhoffer, P. Morgan, G. (Eds. Global forces, national mediations and the management of educational institutions. Two other approaches might be more desirable ethically and politically. Prosser, J. , & Effects of cultural diversity on in-class communication and student project team dynamics: Creating synergy in the diverse classroom. Stoll and Fink identified 10 cultural norms that influence school improvement (see summary in Panel 2). (2001). A tentative model and case study.
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